Name of the Most Influential People in History: 2011

Selasa, 14 Juni 2011

WERNER HEISENBERG 1901-1976

Werner Heisenberg 1901-1976

Into the hands of whom the Nobel Prize for physics fell in 1932? Into the hands of Werner Heisenberg, German physicist. No one can be a Nobel Prize without obvious causes. And because it also must be extraordinary. If only the inventor of hell a lot, and it was hard to pocket the prize. Why can Heisenberg? Because of creations and inventions in the field of "quantum mechanics." This is not random stuff. This is one important achievement in the entire history of science.
Mechanics - every person knowingly mere - is the branch of physics itmu associated with the general laws of motion some things matter. And it's not arbitrary branch branches, but branches have a fundamental weight in the world of science.
In line with the progress increases, the need has increased. Which is considered sufficient today will seem less the next day. No except in the case of mechanics. In the early years of the 20th century had begun and more and more evident how the laws in force in the field of mechanics is not able to reach out and explain the behavior of tiny particles such as atoms, let alone sub-atomic particles. If the old laws that have been accepted by the public to solve problems along the face of Happenings perfect macroscopic objects (objects are much bigger than an atom) is not the case when dealing with a very small object. This not only raise a headache but it also puzzles unanswered.
In 1925 Werner Heisenberg proposed a new formula in physics, a formula that takes very, very radical, far different in basic concept to the classic formula of Newton. The theory of this new formula - after experiencing some improvement by the people after Heisenberg - truly successful and brilliant. The formula was until now not only acceptable but the use of all physical systems, regardless of what kind and size of that however.
Can be proved mathematically, as long observations using only the purely macroscopic systems, the estimation of quantum mechanics is different from classical mechanics in quantities too small to be measured. (For this reason, classical mechanics - which is mathematically simpler than kuanturn mechanics - can still be used for many scientific calculations). However, when dealing with a system of atomic dimensions, the estimation of quantum mechanics is a big different with classical mechanics. The experiments proved that the estimation of quantum mechanics is correct.
One consequence of Heisenberg's theory is what is known - with the formula "uncertainty principle" which formulated itself in 1927. The principle is generally considered one of the most profound principles in scientific fields and most have much coverage. In practice, what is implemented through the use of "uncertainty principle" is specializing certain theoretical limits to our abilities to make scientific measurements. Its effects and influence of this system is very powerful. If the basic laws of physics prevent a scientist - even under ideal circumstances though - get a thorough knowledge of an investigation, it is because the properties of the future of the system is not entirely predictable. According to the "uncertainty principle," there would be no improvements in our measuring equipment that will allow us to surpass difficulties, this.
"Uncertainty principle" is to ensure that physics, in normal circumstances, unable to make much more than statistical guesses. A scientist investigating the radioactivity, for example, might be able to suspect that one of setriliun radium atom, two million will be issued a gamma ray within a day thereafter.
However, Heisenberg himself could not assess whether there is a particular radium atom that would do the same. In many practical things, this is not a strict restriction. When involving large numbers, statistical methods often can deliver reliable footing base to something step. However, when it comes to the number of small size, because so next. Here the "uncertainty principle" compels us away from the notion of causation strict physics. It put forward a very fundamental change in the principal scientific philosophy. So fundamental to the point that great scientist Einstein would never accept this principle. "I do not believe," Einstein once said, "that God is playing games with the destruction of the universe."
However, this is in fact a sign that the experts of the most modern physicists feel the need to accept it.
It is already clear, from the point of quantum theory, and on further rate even greater than the "theory of relativity," has revolutionized our basic concepts about the physical world. However, the consequences of this theory is not merely philosophical.
Among its practical use, can be seen on modern equipment such as electron microscopes, lasers and transistors. Quantum theory is also widely used in the field of nuclear physics and atomic energy. This forms the basis of our knowledge of the field "spectroscopy" (memprodusir tool and examine the spectra of light), and is used widely in astronomy and chemistry sectors. And is also used in theoretical investigations in a wide range of issues that the topic is such a special quality belium fluids, basic internal arrangement of the animals, the addition of magnetic strength, and radio activity.
Werner Heisenberg was born in Germany in 1901. He received a doctorate in theoretical physics from the University of Munich in 1923. From 1924 to 1927 he was working in Copenhagen with great Danish physicist, Niels Bohr. Paper first major work about the particulars of quantum mechanics was published in 1925 and its formula of "uncertainty principle" came out in 1927. Heisenberg died in 1976 at the age of seventy-four years. He lives with his wife and seven children.
From the point of the significance of quantum mechanics, the reader may wonder why Heisenberg was not placed higher than the number now. But keep in mind, Heisenberg is not the only important scientists associated with the development of quantum mechanics. Donations important thought has been given by some of the famous predecessors such as Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, and the French scientist Louis Broglie. Additional inline can still be written here as Austrian scientist Erwin Schrodinger, British experts PAM Dirac. All of them are also gave a very helpful contribution to the theory kuanturn in the years shortly after Heisenberg published his paper which was significantly greater sperm for fertility like science. However, I think Heisenberg was the most important figure in the development of quantum mechanics and on the basis that he deserve a place of high order in this book.

Web Site

http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/p01.htm
http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/biografien/HeisenbergWerner/
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/ ~ history / Mathematicians / Heisenberg.html

WILLIAM HARVEY 1578-1657

William Harvey 1578-1657

Famous British physician, William Harvey, discoverer of blood circulation and heart function, born in 1578 in the town of Folkstone, England. A famous book An Anatomical Treatise on the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals (Motion automated cardiac anatomy and animal blood), published in 1628, precisely at being called an important book on the history of physiology. Indeed, the fact is the starting point for the birth of modern physiology. Its main significance lies not in immediate use but on laying a basic understanding that explains how the human body works.
For we are now being raised with the knowledge of blood circulation, will consider the theory of Harvey as something that is completely clear. But, what now seemed simple and obvious, not so much as for biologists era past. Leading writers in the field of biology has presented various opinions, including: (1) food is converted into blood in the heart, (2) heart warming the food, (3) blood vessels of the heart to the body filled the air, (4) heart makes " vital spirit "; (5) of blood, both in vessels and from the heart to flow and ebb often to the heart and often away from the heart.
Galen, great doctors in the past, people who personally examine and reflect carefully about the heart and blood vessels, had never guessed that the blood circulating. Also it escaped notice despite Aristotle him to pay attention to the biology major. Even after the publication of Harvey's book too many doctors who reluctantly accept the opinion that the blood in the human body is still rotating in the channel on a fixed system, and heart provides the power to drain the blood.
Harvey first formulate an opinion about the blood circulation by making a simple calculation arithmatik. He estimated that the amount of blood the heart rate transmitted by each about 2 ounces. Because the heart beats 72 times per minute, penjumlahannya can be concluded about 540 pounds emitted per hour of blood into the aorta. However, the amount that exceeds the amount of 540 pounds of body weight of a normal human being, even far exceed the amount of weight loss itself. Because it is clear to Harvey that the same blood regularly rotate through the heart. After formulating this hypothesis, nine years old he used to perform experiments and conduct thorough investigations to determine the details of the circulation of blood.
In his book, Harvey clearly states that the arteries carry blood from the heart while veins carry blood back to the heart. In the absence of a microscope, Harvey could not see the capillaries, the smallest blood vessel that carries blood from the smallest arteries to the veins, but with exactly he concluded that there was. (Capillary Malpighi discovered by biologists Italy, several years after the death of Harvey).
Harvey also pointed out that the functioning of the heart is pumping blood into the arteries. In this aspect - as well as in the opinions of the importance of the others - the theory of Harvey entirely correct. Furthermore he presents results of an experiment that is very valuable to strut good reason. Although initially the theory of Harvey gets fierce challenge, but in the end his theory accepted.
Harvey is also involved in the field of embryologi, although less important than the investigation in terms of blood circulation, is not something to be trivialized. He was a careful observer, and his book On the Generation of Animals (About the world's next generation of animals) which was published in 1651 showed the beginning of the real field of science embryologi. Like Aristotle, the strong influence it once, Harvey rejected the theory that the overall structure of the animal's body as young as anything similar to adult animals, with differences only in size. Harvey correctly states the final structure of an embryo grows stage by stage.
Harvey nearly all his life filled with happiness, success, and interesting. In the teens she entered the University of Cambrige. In the year 1600 he went to Italy to study medicine at the University of Padua, who was arguably the best medical schools in the world. (It should be noted, Galileo became a professor there when Harvey studied there, although not certain whether the two never met face). He graduated in Padua in 1602, back to England, practiced medicine for a long time, and success. Among the many patients there are two king of England (James I and Charles I), do not miss the famous philosopher Francis Bacon. While that, he taught at the college of medicine in London and was once elected president repudiated. And in addition to private practice, he became the chief doctor at Hospital St. Bartholomew, London. When his book about blood circulation published in 1628, suddenly his name famous throughout Europe. He's married, but had no children. At the age of seventy-six years he turned a blind eye in London.

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JOHN F. KENNEDY 1917-1963

John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born in 1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts. He became President of the United States starting January 20, 1961 to 22 November 1963 when he was killed in Dallas, Texas. I would set aside most of the data biografisnya, because it had the same problem because it is generally known and the political and personal activities with little relevance Kennedy his presence in this book list.
A thousand years from now, both "Peace Corps" or "Alliance for Progress" or event "Bay of Pigs" will not be remembered. Likewise, Kennedy's political action in the field of tax and statutory civil rights. John F. Kennedy mentioned in this book only for one reason only: he was the person responsible for the establishment of "Space Program, Apollo." Even if humans did not utter a small object on the sidelines of the ever-busy time, we can confirm that even 5000 years to come on our journey to the moon is still considered an extraordinary event, an important event in human history.
I will talk about the importance of further courses to the moon. First, allow me to link this issue with a question, is it true John F. Kennedy was one of the most major role in this journey to the moon. Whether or not Neil Armstrong Edwin Aldrin, the first person who actually set foot on the moon? If we put the names of people in this book list on the basis of his fame in the long run, perhaps properly so, because I suspect more like Neil Armstrong will be remembered for 5000 years people would come over John F. Kennedy. But from the point of impact, Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin completely unimportant. If the cause is or why the two men died two months before the launch of Apollo 11, there will be a dozen well-trained astronauts and high rate capability that is ready to replace it slid to the moon.
Or should we give awards to Wernher von Braun's engineers or other scientists or others who have given contributions and power that enables it to space exploration? No doubt Wernher von Braun had a larger share in terms of advancing the excavation mystery of outer space (as well as predecessors such as Konstantin Tsiolkovsky done, Robert H. Goddard and Hermann Oberth). However, once the political decision has been taken for implementation of the Apollo project, not a single scientist - not also the group which consists of topnotch experts - able to break through this complex problem. Break-hassle way to the moon is not solely of scientific progress, but a political decision. The political that yellow light and provide 24 billion dollars for this project.

July 20, 1969 Apollo 11 astronauts left a trail foot on the lunar surface, fulfilling the promise of Kennedy in May 1961 will land a spacecraft on the moon bermanusia "before the end of this decade"

Well, how about that political decisions? Whether sooner or later, that decision will come too though without John F. Kennedy? I guess hard - although this is not so sure - at some point a government decision to finance the trip will take humans to the moon. Of course, John F. Kennedy did not impose this program when people objected.
On the other hand, there is no pressure and urging the people for the project that cost is not remarkably large grassland. If in 1959 or in 1960, the United States Congress passed the Apollo program and provide funds for it, and if the law had been vetoed by President Eisenhower, you could say that Kennedy was simply carried away by the currents of public opinion. However, the fact that there are shows the opposite: a lot of Americans want the space program, but there was no fuss in the community who objected to a massive program. Even after the Apollo 11 success, there is no meaningful public gossip on the issue of whether the program is beneficial to the cost of it. Since 1969, of course, NASA's budget declined very heavy.
Because it is very clear, is because the leadership of John F. Kennedy, who led the Apollo program was able to walk. Kennedylah on the date of May 1, 1961 promised that the United States would land a spacecraft loaded with man on the moon "before the end of this decade." Is the Kennedy who get funds from Congress, and under the Kennedy program was designed. One could believe that the program to the moon will occur sooner or later (something that actually is not certain), but it was clear that Kennedy was the one who did.
Some people, of course, still feel that the Apollo project is merely quasi-quasi-an only and have no significance. So far no visible signs commemorating the July 20, 1969 as a historic day, for example, the national day. Conversely, we also know that even though the day Columbus was not celebrated in the 16th century, he is commemorated today as a sign of rising dawn of new era.
In fact, if the Apollo project was never passed, yet still will continue to be remembered as the greatest works in human perpacuan reach the highest achievement. But, I think, the Apollo program will be continued and the journey into space will play a larger role in the future than ever before. If so, our grandchildren will feel that the journey of Apollo 11, as well as the journey of Columbus crossed the Atlantic, is the starting point of the whole new era in human history.

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MAO TSE-TUNG 1893-1976

MAO TSE-TUNG 20 1893-1976

Mao Tse-tung led the Communist Party to power in China, and within a period of twenty-seven years after control of the leadership, the changes are amazing and there was a term much in the history of a nation's massive.
Mao Tse-Tung was born in 1893 in the village of Shao-shan in Hunan province, China. His father was a little farmer. In 1911 when Mao was still a student age of nineteen years, the revolution broke out Ch'ing dynasty devastated an already become weak and shit, when this dynasty ruled China since the 17th century. Within a few months the government has dispelled the emperor and upside, and China was proclaimed as a republic. Unfortunately, the leaders of the revolution was not able to establish a government in a compact and stable and the revolution was marked by unrest and civil war in the long term, arguably lasted until 1949.
As a young teen age, Mao knew exactly cover the left in his political views and in 1920 he really has become a true Marxist. In 1921 he was one of the twelve founders of the Chinese Communist party. But the increase to the highest peak of the party leadership to walk slowly, so new in 1935 he became party chairman.
Meanwhile, the overall course of the Chinese Communist party was crawling, twisting, shaking in his attempt to hold power. The party suffered many setbacks in 1927 and 1934, but somehow he was able to survive and live. After 1935, under the leadership of Mao, the party strength steadily increasing and growing. In 1947, the Chinese Communist Party is ready to combat the Nationalist Party-led overthrow the government of Chiang Kai-Shek. In 1949, troops seized glorious victory and absolute control of the Communist Party throughout mainland China.
China at the time of Mao as the leader of the Communist Party reign after the fierce battle for thirty-eight years, nearly a China that has been torn to shreds, in tatters, Poor Dad and the traditional and backward and illiterate, so the dark shadow of Mao's career seems with various visual barriers and end the dead-end street.
However, contrary to the fact that, because thanks to the enormous influence on the masses, rather than end it all deficiency but rather the beginning of the career of leadership, because at the time of Mao's death in 1976 has been completely overhauled practically all of China. One aspect of the reform in general is to modernize the country, especially industrialization, increasing level of education is extremely fast and the improvement of the appalling level of public health. These changes, however important, is not the main reason for placing Mao in the order list this book because other countries were in the same time do the same.
Another aspect of the success of China under Mao is changing its economic system of the capitalist system to a socialist system. Politically, of course, the cultivation was carried out by the ways harsh totalitarian. But keep in mind, through intensive indoctrination and upgrading and tireless, Mao managed to not only mobilize a political revolution but also economic and social revolution. Within a quarter century of reform has to be done in terms of loyalty to the narrow kefamilian into loyalty to the nation as a whole. This reshuffle has a meaning that is of paramount importance given the long history of loyalty and bonding system in China kefamilian teramatlah sturdy. More than that, the Chinese government launched a propaganda indomitable fighting ideology Kong Hu-Cu and this effort seems to reach its target.
Of course, not Mao's one that determines the political line of the government under the Communist party. Mao never plays by herself as well as carried out by Stalin in the Soviet Union. However, it is true of Mao is far more important figure than anyone in the government of China until his death in 1976.
One project which no doubt is the primary responsibility is what Mao's famous "leap ahead" in the late 50's. Many observers thought that the project, including a focus on the intensification of production methods with the use of human power, including a small scale in the form of agricultural communes, as a project that failed. (In many cases even ignored). Another project that gained the support of Mao, with the risk to the challenges of many other Chinese leaders, is "great cultural revolution of the proletariat" in the late 1960s. This is a sharp conflict, in some ways almost like a civil war between Mao and his supporters on the one hand with the Communist Party faction head stone of bureaucracy on the other.
Interesting to note, Mao has aged in the mid-sixties age when the political line "Leap ahead" and was waged through the seventies when the "cultural revolution" driven. And by the time step approach with the United States occurred, he was nearly eighty years.
Mao initially held the opinion, industrial workers in cities is the basis of the Communist party's strongest backers. This is in line with Marx's theory. However, around 1952, Mao concluded - at least in China - touchstone of the party came from the peasants, not workers. This assumption is essentially, because during the long and fierce battle with the Nationalist regime, Mao had always been in rural areas. This idea is implemented when he became head of state. For example, if when Stalin was in power in Russia is generally focused on the development of industrial production sector, Mao generally attract greater attention to agriculture and rural development. Even so, the industrial development of China under Mao developed rapidly.
Not an easy assess long-term significance of a contemporary political figure. Mao keberapa into account in the order must appear in the list of this book, can not we have to make comparisons with other important figures. Mao Tse Tung have a place in the list above George Washington's order, because the reform-reforms in the country are the responsibility of Mao's actions far more fundamental than what has been done by George Washington. Mao also may place more over than Napoleon, Hitler and Alexander the Great due to the inherent long-term influence on him, and this is clearly greater than that belongs to the so-called first.
Another obvious comparison is between Mao and Lenin. Mao's reign in the time period longer than Lenin, after all, in the country that the population is much higher. (Reality did show, during Mao's reign over a period of any ruler in history!) However, Lenin and Mao precede emit strong influence of Mao, and the road to establish Communism in Russia means that he prepares and opens the way for the next Communist establishment in China.
People who work their business almost comparable to Mao was Shih Huang Ti. Both the Chinese and the two architects of the reforms-reforms for his country. Shih Huang Ti to place more on the order of this book because we know the effect lasted for not less than twenty-two centuries. Although the changes are implemented Mao likely more important and more fundamental, but we do not yet know exactly how long the effects can last.

Sumber : http://luk.staff.ugm.ac.id/kmi/iptek/100/Mao.html

QUEEN ELIZABETH I 1533-1603

Throughout the history of England, was Queen Elizabeth I, which is generally considered the king of the most prominent. Forty-five years of his reign was a time of economic prosperity, development of literature, and the emergence of British naval strength so topnotch above the ocean. When the British no longer have kings who stand out, there was a lift England to the golden era.
Elizabeth was born in 1533 in Greenwich, England. His father, King Henry VIII, the pioneering British act renewal. Her mother, Anne Boleyn, was the second wife of Henry. Anne was beheaded to roll like a palm in 1536 and several months later issued an announcement that Elizabeth's parliament who was three years old as a "son of bitch." (This is the general attitude of English Catholics who do not consider legitimate Henry's divorce from his first wife). Although there are the curse of parliament, Elizabeth was raised in the royal household and get a good education.
Henry VIII died in 1547 when Elizabeth was thirteen years old. Eleven years after British rule did not exist that could be considered successful. Edward VI, Elizabeth's half-brother to the throne from 1547 until 1553. Under his rule, political obviously pro-Protestant. Queen Mary I reigned five years after that support the supremacy of the papacy and the strengthening of the Roman Catholic again. During his reign the British Protestants are pursued and persecuted, even some three hundred followers were executed. (This caused the queen to bad nickname: "the bloody Mary." Elizabeth himself arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London. Though eventually released, his life in recent times was in danger. When Mary died (in 1558) Elizabeth that have been aged two twenty-five years on the throne. The increase is to give the brightness for the British population.
Many problems that prevent this young young queen: the war against France; strained relationship with Scotland and Spain; government monetary conditions, and on top of everything that is dark cloud of religious divisions that depend on the head of the UK.
This latest crisis is handled first. Shortly after Elizabeth ascended the throne, the law on "Supremacy and Equality" passed in 1559, establishing English as the official religion Anglican. These satisfy the moderate Protestants, but the Puritans wanted more drastic changes. Although the Puritans faced opposition on the one hand and the Catholics on the other hand, during his reign remains to establish compromises contained in the Act 1559.
Religious situation becomes complicated by circumstances relating to Mary Queen of Scots. Mary was forced to leave Scotland and fled to England. Upon arrival in England he became a prisoner of Queen Elizabeth. Step Elizabeth is not on the basis of violence and arbitrarily: Mary Roman Catholics and also had a decent claim the throne replace Elizabeth. This means, if there is a successful rebellion or murder, the UK will have a more Catholic queen. During detention Mary was nineteen years there are some times gang confront Elizabeth and there is sufficient evidence of the involvement of Mary. Finally in 1587 Mary was sentenced to death. Elizabeth signed the sentence was a little reluctantly. The ministers and MPs generally demanded that Mary killed the sooner the better.
Religious opposition really endanger Elizabeth. In 1570 Pope Pius V excommunicated and ordered him off the throne, and in 1580 Pope Gregory XIII issued an announcement that it is not sinful to kill Elizabeth. However, the situation is also favorable Elizabeth. Throughout his reign, the Protestants seized with a fear of Catholic Religious revival in England. Elizabeth shows itself like a face shield that revival. And this is the source of the principal causes of his popularity among the masses of the great British Protestants.
Elizabeth's handling of foreign policy carefully, flexible, and far-sighted. In early 1560 he completed the "Treaty of Edinburgh" which guarantees a peaceful settlement with the Scots. War with France ended and the relations between the two countries improved. But, gradually, gradually forced the British state was involved conflict with Spain. Elizabeth tried to avoid war, but for the militant Catholic Spain of the 16th century, war between the Spanish with English Protestant hard inevitable. The rebellion in Holland against the Spanish rulers are servants of factors: the rebel general, adherents of the Protestant Dutch and Spanish boost when rebels, Elizabeth helped the Netherlands, despite the fact that Elizabeth had no desire to fight personal. Generally the British people as well as the ministers and parliament more eager to take up arms rather than Elizabeth. Therefore, when the war with Spain finally broke out also in 1580an, Elizabeth gained strong support for the British people.
For years Elizabeth diligently to build the British navy, but, King Philip II of Spain are also rushing to build a large fleet - Spanish Armada - to confront the British. Spanish Armada ships had an almost equal number with belonging to Britain, but kelasinya less, more, more well-trained British sailors and quality of ships and cannon weapons better. The fight broke out in 1588, and an exciting sea battle that ended with the defeat of the Spanish absolute. As a result of this victory, Britain became steadily as the naval forces of the world's most thumbs, fixed position he held until the 20th century this.
Elizabeth always careful in the matter of finances. In the early days of his reign the British Empire's financial condition was healthy. But of course bicker with Spain asked the cost of expensive and at the end of his reign very poor financial circumstances. However, despite poor kingdom, the state of the country as a whole unconditioned more prosperous than at the time of Elizabeth embed crown on top of his head.
Elizabeth's reign for forty-five years (from 1558 until 1603) is often considered "the golden era of England." Some famous British writers, including William Shakespeare, lived in those days. Elizabeth clearly has a stake in this cultural development. He gave the spirit of Shakespeare's theater facing London local government opposition. However, no development of music or a painting that could rival the development of literature.
Elizabeth era also witnessed the rise of English as the explorers. There were repeated trips to Russia and the experiments by Martin Frobisher and John Davis to find a way northwest toward the Far East. Sir Francis Drake sailed round the world (from 1577 to 1580), set foot in California on that trip. Also there is a failed experiment (by Sir Walter Raleigh and others) founded the settlement in North America.
Perhaps the greatest deficiency Elizabeth reluctantly turn provide opportunities for his throne. Not only did she never marry, but she always avoided setting a replacement. (Maybe because he was afraid, if he appoint someone to be his successor will soon be a rival). Whatever the reason Elizabeth did not want to mention his successor, if he died young (or at any time before the death of Mary of Scotland), the UK may already kecemplung in the arena of civil war after the replacement. Good luck for England, Elizabeth lived to the age of seventy years. Above the bed before his spirit floated, he called King James II of Scotland (son of Mary of Scotland) became his successor. Although this means the union between England and Scotland under one crown, this is a confusing choice. Neither James nor his son Charles I was too authoritarian for British tastes, and in the middle of the century of civil war had burst.
Elizabeth had intelligence that exceeds the ordinary person and a politician capable, decisive, have a broad outlook. Coincided with that he has prudence and conservative. He suffered dislikes war and bloodshed, although if necessary he could insist. Like his father, he runs the government with parliamentary cooperation rather than fight it. Because he was not married, so apparently she was a virgin as put forward in public. However, it is also too true if he considered it the sort of man women haters. On the contrary, he clearly likes him and likes to hang out with him. Elizabeth has the ability to choose his ministers are incompetent. Some of the results achieved, among others, thanks to Williarn Cecil (Lord Burghley), who became the main adviser from 1558 until her death in 1598.
Principles of Elizabeth's success can be summarized as follows: First, he led Britain during the second phase of the renewal period without significant bloodshed. (In contrast to Germany where thirty-year war (1618-1648) killed more than twenty-five percent of the population, it is striking). Besides him, the ease of religious hatred between Catholic and Protestant England England, he managed to also maintain the unity of the nation. Second, forty-five years of his reign - Era Elizabeth - generally considered the golden age of a great nation in the world. Third, is also in his reign England emerged as the main force, which could maintain their position the next centuries.
Elizabeth's position in the list order this book had come out a clear habit. In essence, this book is a list of great innovators, the people who put forward new ideas or bring something changes the situation. Elizabeth was not a reformer, not an innovator, and the line of political policy generally cautious and conservative. Nevertheless, much progress happened in his administration than the general proficiency of a conscious desire progress.
Elizabeth did not try to deal directly with serious problems, which is the authority of parliament and royal affairs. However, by the way just stand off to become a despotic, he may be a key driver of democratic life in England than he announced a democratic constitution. Elizabeth did not seek greatness military field and also had no interest in building a large empirium. (Indeed, under Elizabeth, the UK does not have the signs of a empirium). Even so, he left the British Navy the strongest in the world and laid the foundations of the subsequent British empirium.
Greatness empirium British overseas acquired after the death of Elizabeth, at least in part terbesamya. Many people who play an important role empirium British establishment which in some cases can be considered a reasonable result of European expansion in general and the geographical position of Britain. It should also be noted that many other European countries that border the Atlantic Ocean (French, Spanish and even Portuguese) also build a large empirium.
Besides, the role of Elizabeth defend Britain and the threat of Spain easily be exaggerated. If studied, it is not visible Spain was once a serious threat to British independence. It must be remembered, the battle between the British fleet versus fleet of Spain was not too lasted a short distance. (Not one England lost ship!). And further than that, even if Spanish troops successfully landed in England, is difficult to imagine they can conquer it. Spanish armed forces have never reached an impressive victory anywhere in Europe. If Spain was not able to quell the rebellion in the Netherlands, it is clear there is no piece he could conquer England. By the 16th century, English nationalism is much more powerful than the possibility of Spain could conquer it.
So where Elizabeth should be placed on the list this book? Basically he's a local character. When compared with Peter the Great of Russia did not seem equal. Judging from the point of obvious fact Peter is much more innovative than Elizabeth. I will get difficulty convincing the Russians who have clear mind that Elizabeth placed higher in the order of Peter. In contrast, measured from the important role played by England and Englishmen in the centuries after Elizabeth was a mistake to put too far behind Peter. In many ways, it seems clear there is little kings in history have the success as much as Elizabeth.

Sumber : http://luk.staff.ugm.ac.id/kmi/iptek/100/Elizabeth1.html

ABRAHAM LINCOLN 1809-1865

President of the United States into the 16th, Abraham Lincoln, one of the most famous and impressive political figure who once owned the United States - or any country as well. Well, if it does, because what he is not included in the list of the main sequence? Do not release 3.5 million bondsman a masterpiece?
Indeed so. But if we look back, will be seen that strength around the world are struggling irresistible by any force to eliminate all forms of slavery. Many countries had abolished the system of slavery even before Lincoln's reign, and within fifty-five years after his death, most countries do so. The most can be appreciated from the work of Lincoln is to accelerate the process in a country, the United States.
However, the work of Lincoln's greatest service is to maintain the unity of the United States faced attempt secession states south of the country. For this act alone he is entitled to be included in the list order this book.
However, through Lincoln's election was the one who so because the separation of the states south of it. And certainly not the North would also failed to win a civil war if people other than Lincoln became president. And above all, the North opened the battle with the superior of capital, looking from the corner of the population and also greater in the industry.
Even if the North did not win the war, on the whole course of history will not experience major changes. The link language, religion, culture and trade between North and South is so tightly they would unite also. If the split lasted for twenty years, or put, fifty years, it was only a minor event in world history. (Worthy of note that even without the South, the United States now remains the fourth largest populated country in the world, and will remain the most leading industrial countries).
Does this mean that Lincoln did not figure at all important? Absolutely not. His career has profound influence on millions of people in one generation. However, he has not been equal importance as Mahavira whose influence continued for centuries.

Sumber : http://luk.staff.ugm.ac.id/kmi/iptek/100/Lincoln.html

1460-1524 Vasco da Gama

He was, Vasco da Gama, Portuguese investigators who found a direct sea route from Europe to India by sailing around Africa.
The Portuguese have long to find this path since the Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460). Year 1488 a Portuguese expedition under the command of Bartholomew Dias had reached and around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa and back to the Portuguese. With this success, King Portuguese suck in the long effort to find the shortest distance to India is now almost close to reality. However, there are various delays, and only in 1497 an expedition to India is really implemented. To lead the expedition that the king appointed Vasco da Gama, a nobleman of the lower classes who were born around 1460 in the town of Sines, Portugal.
Da Gama anchored unloading July 8, 1497, consisted of four ships under his command with a number of sailors all 170 people including Arabic translators. The first expedition set sail for Cape Verde archipelago. Then, instead of searching the coast of Africa as he was done by Dias, da Gama sailed to the south, far beyond the Atlantic Ocean. He sailed far to the south, and then turning to the east reach the Cape of Good Hope. This is an apt choice, faster than along the coast to the south, although these actions require more courage and shrewdness navigation. Due to the chosen route, the ships are not visible from the mainland Gama for not less than ninety-three days - two and a half times longer than that experienced by the ship Columbus!
Da Gama round the Cape of Good Hope on 22 November, then sailed north to scour the coast of east Africa. In a voyage to the north that he is anchored in various Muslim-controlled city, including Mambasa and Malindi which is now called Kenya. In Malindi he took an Indian guide who led her nation during the 23 days across the Arabian Sea to India. Date May 20, 1498, approximately 10 months after the departure of the Portuguese da Gama arrived at Calicut, the city's most important trading center in southern India. Hindu ruler of Calicut, Zamorin, initially welcomed the arrival of da Gama. But, then Zamorin feel disappointed because the prize offered tributes da Gama's too cheap. In connection with the atrocities Muslim merchants who controlled the trade route in the Indian Ocean, this becomes an obstacle for da Gama went on trade transactions with Zamorin. Nevertheless, when da Gama left Calicut in August, da Gama was given the charge are varieties of spices to be submitted to the government in Portuguese, as well as a number of Indians.
The trip home was more difficult than to leave. Eating a period of about 3 months across the Arabian Sea and many crew members who died of blood diseases due mostly eat meat, but the lack of fruit and plants. Finally, only two ships survived to at home: the first ship docked in Portuguese dated July 10, 1499 and da Gama himself a new boat until 2 months later. Only 55 of his men to survive, meaning less than a third when he left to start the odyssey. However, when da Gama returned to Lisbon on 9 September 1499, both he and King understood very well that the two-year journey that was a huge success.
Six months later, the King of Portugal continued to send another expedition under the command of Pedro Alvares Cabral. Cabral arrived in good time in India, found the route a trip to Brazil (although the historikus believe that there are already other Portuguese people who found it first), and returned to the Portuguese brought piles of spices. However, some of Cabral's men were killed in 1502 Calicut so that da Gama was sent back there to do the punishment of retaliation, brought a fleet of 20 ships.
Da Gama's behavior in this expedition truly malignant. Outside the coastal waters of India he seized an Arab ship that was passing through and after the move cargo but no passengers, he burned the ship was at sea. All passengers are on board, including women and children, perished. When he arrived at Calicut da Gama with a supercilious ask for Zamorin mengahalau all Muslims from the port. When Zamorin hesitated, da Gama was caught and killed him, and set aside 37 Indian sailors were then dibomnya port. But the wrath of helpless people Zamorin da Gama granted the request. On the way home da Gama founded several Portuguese colonies in East Africa.
For this work he received a big gift from the King of Portugal, was given the title of nobility, given the plantations, given the public pension and miscellaneous cash prizes. Da Gama did not return to India until 1524 when the new King of Portugal lifted so young King of India. A few months after arriving in India he became ill and died there in December 1524. He was finally buried back in Lisbon. Da Gama was married and had seven children.
The main significance of Vasco da Gama's journey is because he opened a direct sea route between Europe and India and the Far East, the usefulness can also tasted by many countries.
In the short term, the biggest utility known just fell in Portuguese. Through a new trade route to the East, this country was destitute on the outskirts of civilized Europe torn suddenly become the richest country in Europe. Portuguese quickly established colonies around the Indian Ocean colony of Indonesia. They had the fortresses and outposts soldier in India, Indonesia, Madagascar, on the east coast of Africa and in many places anymore. This of course is a mere addition of the areas they already control, such as Brazil and other colonized areas in western Africa who have their wake up even before Vasco Da Gama's journey. The Portuguese managed to maintain this colony areas until the mid-20th century.
Opening of new trade route to India by Vasco da Gama brought tremendous setback due for Muslim merchants who had controlled the trade routes in the Indonesian Ocean. Muslim traders soon completely defeated and replaced by a Portuguese place. Furthermore, overland trade route between India to Europe became useless because of the sea lane through which Africa was pioneered by the Portuguese is much cheaper. This is a bitter blow for both the Ottoman Turks as well as Italian trade cities (like Venice) that had mastered the trade to the East. But for other Europeans this means the goods from the Far East worth less expensive than the original.
Finally, the greatest influence of Vasco da Gama's journey is not towards Europe or the Middle East, but more against India and Southeast Asia. Before 1498, India remote from Europe. Indeed, throughout the history of India is one country stands alone, unless there are outside influences that come from the northwest. Vasco da Gama's journey to break this isolation and presenting a direct relationship with the culture of Europe via the sea. Europe's influence and power grew more steadily and more strongly in India, until the mid-19th century all over the subcontinent fell under the authority of the British royal crown. (Please note, this is the only time in history that India was united under one ruler). As for Indonesia, was originally just got the European influence, then completely fell under European rule. Only after the mid-20th century these areas to obtain autonomy.
People who clearly can be equated with Vasco da Gama was Christopher Columbus. In some ways, this comparison gives advantages to the Vasco da Gama. His trip, for example, brings far more impressive results. And far longer than either Columbus trip distance and duration is measured from. More than three-fold! And require more navigation shrewdness. (Columbus, no matter how much he lost his direction, at most, he did not discover the New World, while Vasco da Gama will lose the Cape of Good Hope and disappeared somewhere in the Indonesian Ocean.) Furthermore, unlike Columbus, Vasco da Gama made it to the planned destination.
Certainly debatable, Vasco da Gama did not find the New World, but it just makes the relationship between the people of Europe with the countries that are already populated. If so, what's the difference with Columbus.
Travel Columbus finally have a tremendous influence on the culture that has not flourished in the New World; da Gama's journey eventually produce cultural change India and Indonesia. In terms of assessing the significance between Columbus and Vasco da Gama, one thing to remember, though South America and North America is much bigger than India, but India has a population of more than all the residents of the New World combined into one!
However, clearly more influential Columbus extensive than Vasco da Gama. First, the voyage around Africa to India is not of the desire Vasco da Gama himself. Portugislah king who decided to send the expedition was long before Vasco da Gama he chose to lead it. While the expedition came from the encouragement Columbus Columbus himself, and thanks to approach and how to take care so that Queen Isabella willing to support it with financial. If it were not for Columbus, New World (although sooner or later will find those as well) would just step on people who knows how many years later, and possibly by other European citizens. In addition, if the Vasco da Gama no diberanakkan by her mother into this world, the king of Portugal just select another person to lead the expedition. Even if the Vasco da Gama incompetent and failed, the Portuguese will not stop his intention looking for direct route to India when he saw the possibility of it not far away. And, if the Portuguese did not establish bases along the west coast of Africa, very little possibility of other European nations was first able to set foot in India.
Secondly, the European influence on India and the Far East is not comparable with European influences on New World. Fast-changing Indian culture after any contact with the West. But, within several decades after the voyage of Columbus, New World cultures even arguably moulder. Also there is no equation between India with the establishment of the United States in the New World.
Just as people are unable to give a compliment (or curse) to Christopher Columbus for all the events that occurred in the New World, as well as people can not appreciate the Vasco da Gama with all the results of any contacts between Europe and the East. Vasco da Gama was made one of the chain just because many more people who can be recognized as pioneers: Henry the Navigator, a Portuguese sailor who explored the west coast of Africa; Bartholomew Dias, Vasco da Gama himself; the replacement thereafter (such as Francisco de Almeida and Alfonso d'Albuquerque), and much more. I think, Vasco da Gama was a mere chain of the most important. However, he was not the one who so have an important role as does Christopher Columbus in the New World Europeanization. On the basis of important principles that Vasco da Gama set out in this book list is far below Columbus.

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LAO TSE CENTURY BC-4

Of the thousands and thousands of titles of books ever written in China, perhaps the most widely translated and read abroad it is a book written over 2000 years ago, known by the name of Lao Tse or the Tao Te Ching. The book Tao Te Ching or the "old way and strength" is the main script where the philosophy of Taoism specified.
This book is complicated book, written in a style typical of the exceptional and capable of presenting various visual interpretations. Central idea is related to a common problem Tao is translated as "Way" or "Path." However, the concept is somewhat vague, because the book Tao Te Ching itself begins with the sentence: "Tao that is described is not the eternal Tao; names mentioned here is not the eternal name." However, it is possible we say that Tao means roughly "Natural" or "Natural Law."
Taoists believe that individuals do not wrestle against Tao but must be subject to devote themselves and work with him. (A Taoist may appoint an example unlimited soft water, which flows without protest to the lower mainland and are not as weak against the power of anything, not destroyed, but the reefs are as solid as anything can yield in the end).
To a person, simplicity and fairness are to be recommended. Violence should be shunned, as are struggling for money and prestige. People should not be eager to change the world, but must respect it. For government, a step that is considered wise is do not so active, many of this set prohibit it. Moreover, the rules and restrictions are too much. Because it adds more laws, or amplify the provisions of the old existing ones, only cause the situation worse. High taxes, government plans are too ambitious, promote war, all of which are contrary to the philosophy of Taoism.
According to Chinese tradition, the author of Tao Te Ching is a man named Lao Tse that he said but the older contemporary of Confucius-Cu. However, Kong Hu Cu-life in the 6th century BC. And both of them - both from the point of writing style and content - just a few scientists today believe that the Tao Te Ching was written at the time was so early. There are different opinions about the time the actual preparation of the book. (Tao Te Ching itself never mentioned the name of a particular person, nor place, date, or historical events). However, the year 320 BC is a reasonable estimate of the time-actually eighty years of real time, and maybe even closer.
Family adherents of the schools of Taoism give offerings to the moon ahead of the autumn. This problem makes a sharp conflict of opinion regarding the time even concerning the existence of Lao Tse's own. While the authorities believe that Lao Tse's living tradition in the 6th century BC, hence the conclusion he is not writing the Tao Te Ching. Other scholars consider him nothing more than a mere fairy tale figures. My own opinion, that only a small portion agreed upon by scholars, are as follows: (1) Lao Tse was really no one and indeed the author of Tao Te Ching, (2) he lived in the 4th century BC, (3) The story that Lao Tse contemporaneous but older than Hu-Cu Kong is a far-fetched explanation, the fictional and written by Taoist philosophers who came later just for the purpose of adding prestige to the person and his book.
Both noted, from the previous Chinese writers both Kong Hu-Cu (551-479 BC), or Mo Ti (5th century BC), or Meng-tse (371-289 BC) mention either none or Lao Tse Tao Te Ching. However, Chuang Tse, a famous Taoist philosopher - who appeared about the year 300 BC Lao Tse's name repeatedly.
Because the question whether or not in this world man whose name is Lao Tse's still a question, should we even doubt the details of his biography. However, there are sources that should be appreciated in the form of a statement as follows: Lao Tse was born and lived in northern China. Most of his life he became a historian or a mentor part of government archives, most likely in the city of brass, the capital of the kingdom of Chou dynasty. Lao Tse is not a real name, but simply call the honor which roughly means "elder." He married and had a son named Tsung. Si Tsung This then became generals in the land of Wei.
While Taoism originated from secular philosophy, but a kind of religious movements evolved from there. However, because of Taoism as a philosophy continue on the basis of particular ideas contained in the book Tao Te Ching, "Religion Taoist" was immediately overwhelmed with confidence and full of superstitious observances which have very little to do with the teachings of Taoism.
Sticking to the allegations that Lao Tse was the real author of the book Tao Te Ching, the effect really wide. The book is very concise (its content is less than 6000 Chinese characters, because it is still not a lot to be loaded in a sheet of newspaper!), But he contains many deep thoughts. The entire line of Taoist philosophers hold on this book as the base of the decline of his own ideas.
In the West, the Tao Te Ching far more popular than the writings of Confucius-Cu or-Cu philosopher Confucius are everywhere. In fact, there are at least forty kinds of English translation of the book was published, more than any translation of any book except the Bible.
While in China, Confucius ideology-Cu is generally a belief that the dominant philosophy, and clearly there is a conflict between the mind Lao-Tse with Kong Hu Cu. Most Chinese people embrace the schools of the latter kind. But Lao Tse high across the board appreciated by the followers of Confucius-Cu. And more than that, in many ways, the ideas of Taoism dibaur away with the ideas of Confucius-Cu, because it affects millions of people while not calling themselves Taoist. Similarly, Taoism has a clear influence on the development of Buddhist philosophy in China, especially to Zen Buddhism. Although few people now call themselves Taoist teachings, no one except the Chinese philosopher Confucius-Cu which have influence is so vast and so steady the way the human mind as well as Lao Tse.

Sumber : http://luk.staff.ugm.ac.id/kmi/iptek/100/LaoTse.html

UMAR IBN AL-KHATTAB ± 586-644

Umar ibn al-Khattab ± 586-644

A mosque in Cairo named "Masjid Umar ibn al-Khattab" `Umar Ibn al-Khattab was the second caliph, and perhaps the greatest of all Islamic caliphate. He was contemporary but more younger than the Prophet Muhammad. And like Muhammad, he was born in Mecca. Year of birth is unknown, but according to the estimated year-586.
Origin `Umar Ibn al-Khattab is an enemy of the most vicious and violent, against Muhammad and Islam all-out. However, he suddenly embraced the new religion and turned into staunch supporters. (It is interesting similarities with the particulars St. Paul to Christians). `Umar Ibn al-Khattab then became the closest adviser to the Prophet Muhammad and that was done throughout the lifetime of Muhammad.
Muhammad died in 632, without appoint his successor. Omar quickly supported Abu Bakr as successor, a close friend of the Prophet and his in-laws. This step prevents any power and allow Abu Bakr is generally recognized as the first Caliph, a kind of "replacement" of the Prophet Muhammad. Abu Bakr was the leader of a successful but he died after a caliph only for two years. However, Abu Bakr appointed `Umar became caliph in 634 and held power until the year 644 when he was killed in Medina by the deeds of a Persian slave. Above the bed before his death, `Umar appointed a panita consists of six people to choose his successor. Thus once again the opportunity farthest power struggle for power. Six-person committee was appointed as the Caliph `Uthman to-3 ruling in 644-656.
Within ten years of `Umar's leadership was important conquests do Arabs. Shortly after `Umar held the reins of power as caliph, the Arab forces occupied Syria and Palestine, who was then a part of the Byzantine Empire. In the battle of Yarmuk (636), the Arab armies succeeded in beating out the power of Byzantium. Damascus fell in that year also, and Darussalam give up two years later. By the year 641, Arab forces had taken control of all Palestine and Syria, and keeps crashing forward into what is now called Turkey. Years 639, Arab armies invaded Egypt, which also was under Byzantine rule. Within three years, completed the conquest of Egypt perfectly.
Arab attack against Iraq which was under the authority of the Persian Empire had begun even before the Caliph `Umar rose. The key Arab victory lies in the battle of Qadisiya in 637, occurred during `Umar's Caliphate. By the year 641, seseluruh Iraq was under Arab control. And not only that: the Arab armies immediately invaded Persia and even in battle Nehavend (642) decisively beat them the last remaining Persian forces. By the death of `Umar in the year 644, most of the western region of Iran has fully terkuasai. This movement does not stop when `Umar died. In the east they rapidly conquered the Persians and the western part they pressed on with the troops across North Africa.
As important as the meaning of conquests by `Umar was the permanence and stability reign. Iran, though its inhabitants converted to Islam, together with that they won independence from Arab governments. But Syria, Iraq and Egypt never get the same thing. Countries were entirely in-Arabkan until the present.
`Umar was barangtentu have a plan what should be done to areas that have been conquered by Arab forces. He decided, Arabs have special privileges in terms of the military in areas conquered, they must reside in certain towns designated for it, apart from the locals. Local residents must pay taxes to the Muslim conquerors (mostly Arabs), but they are allowed to live in safe and secure. In particular, they are not forced to embrace Islam. From this it is clear anyway that the Arab conquest war of conquest is more nationalist than a holy war even though aspects of religion rather not play a role.
The success of `Umar's really impressive. After the Prophet Muhammad, he is the main character in the case of invasion by Islam. Without conquest-conquest of lightning speed, doubt whether Islam can be spread widely, as can be witnessed today. Moreover, most of the conquered areas remained under Arab rule until now. Clearly, of course, mainly driven Muhammadlah if he should accept the award on this development. However, would be a serious mistake if we shrink the stock role of `Umar. Later conquests did not result automatically from the inspiration provided by Muhammad. The expansion might be able to happen, but it is not going up to that size if only without the brilliant leadership of `Umar.
It would be a surprise - for Westerners who are not so familiar with `Umar - read the placement of people is higher than the famous people like Charlemagne or Julius Caesar in order this book list. You see, the conquest by the Arabs under the leadership of `Umar wider areas and longer lasting and more meaningful than what was done by Charlemagne or Julius Caesar .

web site :http://luk.staff.ugm.ac.id/kmi/iptek/100/Umar.html

THOMAS EDISON 1847-1931

Penemu serba bisa Thomas Alva Edison lahir tahun 1847 di kota Milan, Ohio, Amerika Serikat. Cuma tiga tahun dia peroleh pendidikan formal, sesudah itu disepak keluar sekolah karena si guru menganggap anak ini dungu luar biasa.
Ciptaan pertamanya, perekam suara elektronik dibikinnya tatkala umurnya dua puluh satu tahun. Hasil karyanya itu tidak dijualnya. Sesudah itu dia menekuni pembikinan peralatan yang diharapnya bisa laku terjual di pasar, tak lama sesudah dia berhasil membikin perekam suara elektronik, dia menemukan dan menyempurnakan mesin telegram yang secara otomatis mencetak huruf, yang dijualnya seharga 40.000 dolar, suatu jumlah besar pada saat itu. Sehabis itu, bagaikan antri dia menemukan hasil karya baru dan dalam tempo singkat Edison bukan saja masyhur tetapi juga berduit. Mungkin, penemuannya yang paling asli adalah mesin piringan hitam yang dipatenkannya tahun 1877. Tetapi, lebih terkenal di dunia dari itu adalah pengembangan bola lampu pijar yang praktis tahun 1879.
Edison bukan orang pertama yang menciptakan sistem penerangan listrik. Beberapa tahun sebelumnya lampu bersinarkan arus listrik telah digunakan buat penerangan lampu jalan di Paris. Tetapi, bola pijar Edison berikut sistem pembagian tenaga listrik yang dikembangkannya memungkinkan adanya penerangan listrik yang praktis untuk di rumah. Tahun 1882, perusahaannya mulai memproduksi listrik untuk rumah-rumah di New York, dan dalam tempo singkat sudah tersebar ke seluruh dunia.
Dengan berdirinya perusahaan listrik pertama untuk penerangan rumah-rumah, Edison berarti sudah meletakkan dasar bagi perkembangan industri besar. Penggunaan tenaga listrik bukan cuma buat penerangan tetapi untuk seluruh aspek kebutuhan rumah tangga, mulai dari televisi hingga mesin cuci. Lebih jauh lagi, kegunaan tenaga listrik lewat distribusi jaringan-jaringan yang didirikan Edison dengan sendirinya mendorong penggunaan listrik untuk sektor industri.
Edison juga memberi sumbangan besar luar biasa buat perkembangan kamera perfilman serta proyektor. Dia membuat penyempurnaan penting pertilponan (karbon transmiternya meningkatkan kejelasan pendengaran), penyempurnaan di bidang telegram, dan mesin tik. Diantara penemuan lainnya antara lain mesin dikte, mesin kopi dan tempat penyimpanan yang digerakkan baterei. Boleh dibilang, Edison merancang lebih dari 1000 penemuan, suatu jumlah yang betul-betul tak masuk akal.
Satu sebab produktivitasnya amat mengherankan adalah karena pada awal-awal kariernya dia membangun sebuah laboratorium penyelidikan di Menlo Park, New Jersey. Di situlah dia menghimpun kelompok pembuat yang berkemampuan membantunya. Ini adalah cikal bakal sebuah laboratorium penyelidikan yang kemudian ditiru oleh begitu banyak industri. Laboratorium pemula Edison yang modern, suatu pusat penyelidikan yang berperalatan lengkap di mana begitu banyak orang bekerja bersama merupakan suatu team, adalah pula hasil karyanya yang penting, meskipun tentu saja sesuatu yang tidak bisa dia patenkan.
Edison bukanlah seorang penemu semata; dia juga terlibat dalam pembikinan dan mengorganisir pelbagai perusahaan industri. Yang paling penting diantaranya akhirnya menjelma menjadi General Electric Company.
Meski secara pembawaan dia bukan seorang ilmuwan murni, Edison membikin satu penemuan ilmiah. Di tahun 1882 dia menemukan bahwa dalam keadaan mendekati hampa udara, arus listrik dapat dialirkan diantara dua kawat yang tidak bersentuhan satu sama lain. Fenomena ini --disebut penemuan Edison-- bukan sekedar punya maksud teoritis yang penting, tetapi juga punya arti penggunaan praktis yang bermakna. Ini menuntun ke arah perkembangan tabung hampa udara dan peletakan dasar industri elektronik.
Hampir sepenuh masa hidupnya, Edison menderita pendengaran lemah. Tetapi, meski begitu, dia lebih dari sekedar dapat mengatasi hambatan itu dengan kerja kerasnya yang mengagumkan. Edison kawin dua kali (istri pertamanya mati muda), punya tiga anak dari masing-masing istri. Dia meninggal tahun 1931 di West Orange, New Jersey.
Tak ada perselisihan paham mengenai bakat Edison. Tiap orang sepakat bahwa dialah penemu besar yang genius yang pernah hidup. Barisan penemuan-penemuannya yang amat bermanfaat dianggap menggemparkan dan membikin dengkul menggigil, meskipun mungkin saja sebagiannya dikembangkan oleh orang lain dalam tempo tiga puluh tahun. Namun, bila kita perhatikan penemuan-penemuan pribadinya, akan tampak oleh kita bahwa tak satu pun daripadanya punya arti penting yang bersifat menentukan. Misalnya bola pijar, walaupun digunakan secara luas, bukanlah barang yang tak tergantikan dalam dunia modern. Fakta menunjukkan, penerangan yang berasal dari radiasi dan keluar terpencar dalam bentuk cahaya, yang bekerja atas dasar prinsip-prinsip ilmiah yang sepenuhnya berbeda, juga digunakan orang secara luas, dan dalam kehidupan kita sehari-hari tidaklah ada bedanya apabila kita tidak menggunakan bola lampu pijar samasekali. Sesungguhnya, sebelum penerangan listrik digunakan, lilin, lampu minyak, dan lampu gas sudah secara umum dipandang sebagai kadar penerangan yang memuaskan.
Alat piringan hitam memang suatu penemuan cerdik, tetapi tak seorang pun menganggap alat itu sudah mampu mengubah kehidupan kita sehari-hari seperti halnya peranan yang disuguhkan radio, televisi atau tilpon. Lebih jauh dari itu, dalam tahun-tahun belakangan ini, telah dapat diciptakan alat perekam suara dengan metode yang sama sekali berbeda, seperti misalnya pita magnetik kaset. Dan andaikata tidak ada mesin piringan hitam, rasanya tidak apa-apa. Banyak paten-paten Edison yang berkaitan dengan penyempurnaan alat-alat, sebetulnya sudah ditemukan oleh orang lain lebih dulu, bahkan sudah dalam bentuk yang sudah bisa dimanfaatkan. Penyempurnaan-penyempurnaan ini --meski banyak menolong-- tak bisa dianggap sebagai suatu arti penting dalam rangkaian gerakan sejarah secara umum.
Tetapi, kendati tak satu pun hasil penemuan Edison memiliki arti penting yang menggemparkan, berguna juga untuk diingat bahwa dia tidak cuma menciptakan satu alat, tetapi lebih dari seribu. Atas dasar pertimbangan inilah saya menempatkan Edison lebih tinggi ketimbang penemu termasyhur seperti Guglielmo Marconi dan Alexander Graham Bell.

Situs Web

http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edhome.html
http://www.virtualology.com/THOMASALVAEDISON.ORG/

ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL 1847-1922

Tak seberapa dapat pendidikan formal, tetapi diajar baik oleh keluarganya dan belajar sendiri, begitulah ihwal Alexander Graham Bell penemu tilpun yang dilahirkan tahun 1847 di Edinburg, Skotlandia. Minat Bell memproduksi kembali suara vokal timbul secara wajar karena ayahnya seorang ahli dalam hal fisiologi vokal, memperbaiki pidato dan mengajar orang-orang tuli.
Bell pernah ke Boston, negara bagian Massachusetts tahun 1871. Di sanalah pada tahun 1875 dia membuat percobaan-percobaan yang mengarah pada penemuan tilpun. Dia mengumpulkan paten untuk mengokohkan penemuannya di bulan Februari 1876 dan mendapat imbalan beberapa minggu kemudian. (Menarik sekali untuk dicatat bahwa seorang lain bernama Elisha Gray juga mengumpulkan paten penemuan untuk pengokohan mengenai peralatan serupa pada hari yang berbarengan dengan apa yang diperbuat Bell, hanya selisih beberapa jam saja).
Tak lama sesudah patennya diterima, Bell mempertontonkan tilpun di pameran 100 tahun kota Philadelphia. Penemuannya menarik perhatian besar publik dan mendapat penghargaan atas hasil karyanya. Tetapi, The Western Union Telegraph Company yang menawarkan uang sebesar $100.000 buat penemuan alat itu mengelak membayarnya. Karena itu, Bell dan kawan-kawannya, di bulan Juli 1877, mendirikan perusahaan sendiri, nenek moyang dari American Telephone and Telegraph Company sekarang. Tilpun dengan cepat dan besar-besaran mencapai sukses secara komersial. Sakarang ini AT & T merupakan perusahaan bisnis yang terbesar di dunia.
Bell dan istrinya yang di bulan Maret 1879 memegang 15 persen saham dari perusahaan itu tampaknya tak punya bayangan betapa akan fantastisnya keuntungan yang bakal diterima oleh perusahaan itu. Dalam tempo cuma tujuh bulan, mereka sudah jual sebagian besar saham mereka dengan harga rata-rata $250 per saham. Di bulan Nopember harganya sudah melesat naik jadi $1000 per saham! (Di bulan Maret itu isterinya-lah yang mendesak buru-buru jual karena dia khawatir harga saham tak akan sampai setinggi itu lagi!) Di tahun 1881 dengan gegabah mereka jual lagi sepertiga jumlah sisa saham yang mereka punyai. Meski begitu, toh dalam tahun 1883 mereka sudah bisa peroleh keuntungan seharga sekitar sejuta dolar.
Kendati penemuan tilpun sudah mengorbitkan Bell jadi kaya-raya, dia tak pernah berhenti meneruskan penyelidikannya, dan dia berhasil menemukan lagi pelbagai alat yang berguna walau tidak sepenting tilpun. Minatnya beraneka ragam, tetapi tujuan utamanya adalah menolong orang tuli. Istrinya sendiri tadinya gadis tuli yang dilatihnya sendiri. Empat anak, dua lelaki dua perempuan keluar berkat perkawinan tetapi keempatnya mati muda. Tahun 1882 Bell jadi warganegara Amerika Serikat dan mati tahun 1922.
Ukuran besar-kecilnya pengaruh Bell terletak pada penilaian besar kecilnya makna tilpun itu sendiri. Menurut hemat saya, pengaruh itu besar sekali karena tak banyak penemuan yang begitu luas digunakan orang dan begitu besar pengaruhnya dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.
Saya tempatkan Bell dalam urutan di bawah Marconi berhubung radio lebih beragam kegunaannya ketimbang tilpun. Misalnya, pembicaraan lewat tilpun dapat pada dasarnya dilakukan lewat radio, tetapi dalam beberapa hal (misalnya komunikasi dengan pesawat yang sedang terbang) tilpun tidak bisa menggantikan fungsi radio. Kalau saja cuma faktor itu semata yang jadi ukuran, Bell akan menduduki urutan jauh lebih bawah lagi daripada Marconi. Tetapi, ada dua hal yang layak dipertimbangkan. Pertama, meskipun pembicaraan tilpun pribadi bisa saja dilakukan lewat radio, akan teramat sulitlah menggantikan seluruh sistem pertilpunan kita dengan jaringan radio yang setara. Kedua, metode pokok menyalurkan kembali suara yang dirancang Bell buat penerima tilpun belakangan di ambil oper dan digunakan oleh penerima radio, piringan hitam dan pelbagai rupa peralatan lainnya. Itu sebabnya saya anggap pengaruh Bell cuma sedikit lebih kurang ketimbang Marconi.

Situs Web

http://www.alexandergrahambell.org/
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/bellhtml/bellhome.html

MARTIN LUTHER 1483-1546

Martin Luther 1483-1546

Martin Luther, who pembangkangannya against the Roman Catholic Church and gave birth to the Protestant reform movement born in the year 1483 in the town of Eisleben, Germany. He obtained a college education is quite good and at one time had studied the law (apparently at the instigation of the father). But, overall he has never completed a formal education but rather choose to be Augustinian priest. In 1512 he earned his doctorate in theology from Wittenberg University and soon after that plunge active in the faculty department.
Dissatisfaction and Martin Luther's complaints against the Roman Catholic Church arose level by level. In 1510 he made perlawatan to Rome. At that point he was shocked stunned witness absurdly worldly extravagance and luxury of the priests of the Catholic church. However, the most pushed protested the church is mainly in terms of deeds relating to the issue of forgiveness of sins committed by the church. On October 31, 1517 Martin Luther putting up posters at the gates of Wittenberg church that contains the "ninety-five basic attitude of" who berated the luxuries of life including the church in general and send oppression "ninety-five basic attitude of" it was the Bishop of Mainz. In addition, also printed and widely distributed everywhere.
The scope of Martin Luther's protest against the Roman Catholic Church with remarkable velocity spread and spread. Luther increase its attacks into the heart of the problem right: to deny the power of the Pope, the Church Council. Martin Luther insisted he was only subject to the guidance of the Gospel and by reason of common sense. Understandably, the church was not pleased with this Luther's opinion. Luther was ordered to come before the church dignitaries and after each hearing and argument as well as a requirement that the Martin Luther threw his opinion, he finally declared "apostates" and found guilty and excommunicated by the board of the trial (1521) and all his writings and not otherwise prohibited could be accounted for.
It should be - according to custom - Martin Luther should be burned to charcoal burning as well as the person who set fire to straw. However, Luther's views are widespread and affect a small portion of Germans and German noblemen. Although Martin Luther must also go hide for a year, support for him is so strong that he could be released from criminal penalties that befall him.
Martin Luther was a famous and prolific writer and had a wide influence. One job is to translate the Bible into German. This - of course - opening the door for each person their own literacy without necessarily learning the gospel through the intermediary of the church or pastor. (Incidentally, the translation is so beautiful and perfect spread remarkable influence on the language and kesusasteraaan Germany).
Luther's theology - of course - impossible described here in brief in a limited space. One of the key ideas is the doctrine of the necessity of faith in trust solely, an idea based on the writings of St. Paul. Luther was convinced, man becomes bleak according kondratnya because of his sins and solely through the actions and work better alone that can save him from eternal damnation. Rescue only comes through faith and with the blessing of God's forgiveness. Therefore, according to Luther, it is clear that the actions of the church to sell forgiveness is inappropriate and futile. With so well meant, traditionally a rusty opinion that the church considers it an intermediary that can not be removed between a Christian and God is really something that is false. If one adheres to the doctrine of Martin Luther, it means the right to life of the Roman Catholic Church was wiped out at one stroke.
In addition, in the case questioned the essential role of the church, Luther also protested against various kinds of beliefs and practices of special worship. For example, he rejected the existence of purgatory (a state after death where the spirit requires purification through torture while), and he refused necessity for a priest celibacy. He himself in 1525 married a former nun, had six children. Luther died in Eisleben in 1546 when he was on his way to visit his hometown.
Martin Luther, of course, not a Protestant thinker first. A century before he was preceded by Jan Hus of Bohemia, and in the 14th century British scholar John Wycliffe, even in the 12th century a Frenchman named Peter Waldo can be considered a first Protestant. However, the influence of Martin Luther's predecessors in the movement had only included the local. In 1517, dissatisfaction with the Catholic church has penetrated everywhere. Sayings of Martin Luther was a huge fire that spread to a chain of much of Europe. Luther because it has an indisputable right that he was the person responsible for the explosion of dynamite sulutan renewal.
The most obvious consequence of this renewal movement - of course - the establishment of various Protestant sects. Although Protestant cumalah is only part of Christianity as a whole, nor is the biggest part, but nonetheless exceeded the number of adherents of the Buddhist and even compared with other religions generally.
Important consequence of this renewal movement is spreading breadth of armed religious clashes that soon followed. Some examples of religious wars (eg, Thirty Years' War in Germany that began in 1618 and only ended in 1648) really a bloody war which claimed many victims. Even besides clashing of weapons, the political conflict between Catholics and Protestants play an important role in the political arena of Europe for several centuries to come.
Renewal also plays a complicated but important in the intellectual development of Europe. Prior to 1517 there is only one church, the Roman Catholic Church and every dissident and who have another opinion immediately branded "apostates." Climate kemplang that kind of erratic play just does not give freshness for freedom of thinking. After the renewal because various countries have accepted the principles of freedom of thought in religion, in itself provide security in a matter of speculation of various kinds of problems.
There is also another notable influence, most figures are included in the list in this book are from Britain, exceeding the figures from other countries. Germany followed after the British. It could be said, a list of these figures are very subtle dominated by those from both the Protestant countries of Northern Europe and America. If we examine, only two people from the list (Gutenberg and Charlemagne) lived before the year 1517. Before that year, most of the people listed in this book comes from another world and the people who live in the land which is now well known in comparison with Protestant countries did not contribute how much to human culture and history. This light indicates how the Protestant movement or the Renewal movement is responsible for the fact how many famous people from this area within a period of 450 years. Perhaps the development of intellectual freedom in this area was a major factor.
Luther was not altogether free from mistakes. Although he was a rebel against religious authority, he can be very short-sighted and not gracefully against those who have different opinions with him on religious issues. It could be short-sighted attitude and not gracefully Luther has resulted in religious wars in Germany is much more fierce and more bloody than for example in the UK. After all, Martin Luther very gravity of anti-Jewish, and his writings are very outrageous and hit kromo against Jews is likely to pave the way for Hitler's encouragement to do the atrocities in the 20th century.
Luther often stressed the need for adherence to the rule of legitimate civilian government. Most likely, the main background is due to refusal of church interference against civil government. (Do not forget, the Renewal movement is not solely theological strife, To a certain extent he is also a German Nationalist revolt against Roman influence, therefore it's worth when some movements get great support from some German prince). Remove from Luther's intentions, his statement on the German Protestants encouraged to receive the absolute attitude in matters relating to politics. And that way also the writings of Martin Luther helped clear the way for the era of Hitler's power.
Maybe there are some people wondered why Martin Luther was not given a higher place in the list of this book. The main reason, though Luther had seen the importance for Europeans and Americans, he does not have significant meaning for the people in Asia and Africa because it is relatively not much to embrace Christianity. And as far as the Chinese, Japanese or Indian, the difference between Catholics and Protestants have no significance for them. (Something similar happened to the Europeans who are not so interested in the differences between the Sunnis and the Shiites in Islam).
The second reason, Luther when weighed-weigh, a new historical figure, because it influence coverage in the history of humanity. not as big as Mohammed, Buddha, or Moses. Furthermore, during recent centuries to the religious beliefs of decline in the West, and the influence of religion on human problems within the next 2000 years seems smaller than the thousands of years passed. If the work holding continuous decline of religious influence, Martin Luther-dragon dragon will appear more reduced again its importance in the history of humanity than he earned now.
Finally, remember that we are worthy of religious strife in the early centuries of the 16th and 17th really does not - in the long run - an impact to people's lives as well as the progress of science is happening at the same time. Indeed, the main reason why Luther was placed within the main list of more top of Copernicus (who lived contemporary with it) is because Luther play a greater role by an individual within the Protestant Reform movement than the Copernican revolution in science.